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Tactile perception (stereognosis purchase cyklokapron 500mg overnight delivery medicine used for uti, manual dexterity buy cyklokapron 500 mg amex medications may be administered in which of the following ways, finger localization buy 500 mg cyklokapron amex medicine bottle, graphes- thesia, simultaneous tactile stimulation) b. Broca’s area: inferior frontal (nonfluent, nonrepetitive, with intact comprehension) 2. Wernicke’s area: superior temporal (fluent, nonrepetitive, with loss of comprehension) 3. Conduction: arcuate fasciculus (fluent, comprehension intact, with loss of repetition) C. Witzelsucht (inappropriate jocularity) is seen in patients with orbi- tofrontal cortex lesions. Pseudobulbar affect: exaggerated emotional response incongru- ent to mood; treat with dextromethorphan/quinidine sulfate D. Gerstmann syndrome: tetrad—dysgraphia, dyscalculia, right-left disorientation, finger agnosia 2. Alexia without agraphia: intact writing with impaired reading due to damage to dominant occipital, parietal, and forceps major of corpus callosum i. Kluver-Bucy syndrome: hyperorality, hypersexuality, apathy, hypermetamorphosis, and visual agnosia F. Activation of a postsynaptic acetyl choline receptors results in which of the following? An efflux of Na into the cell and an efflux of K , depolarizing the postsynaptic neuron + + b. An influx of Na into the cell and an efflux of K , depolarizing the postsynaptic neuron + + c. An influx of Na into the cell and an influx of K , depolarizing the postsynaptic neuron d. An influx of Na+ into the cell and an efflux of K+, repolarizing the postsynaptic neuron + + e. An efflux of Na into the cell and an influx of K , repolarizing the postsynaptic neuron 2. Which of the following is true regarding Prader-Willi syndrome and Angelman’s syndrome? Prader-Willi syndrome is paternally inherited with maternal imprinting; Angelman’s syndrome is paternally inherited with maternal imprinting. Prader-Willi syndrome is maternally inherited with maternal imprinting; Angelman’s syndrome is paternally inherited with paternal imprinting. Prader-Willi syndrome is maternally inherited with paternal imprinting: Angelman’s syndrome is paternally inherited with maternal imprinting. Prader-Willi syndrome is paternally inherited with maternal imprinting; Angelman’s syn- drome is maternally inherited with paternal imprinting. In both Prader-Willi syndrome and Angelman’s syndrome, genes inherited from the father are silenced via methylation. Which of the following clinical syndromes is matched with the appropriate region of protein/ gene abnormality? Which of the following statements related to disorders of primary neurulation is (are) correct? Spina bifida aperta is associated with a neurological deficit in 90% of those affected. Meningocele is a herniation of a cerebrospinal-fluid-filled sac with neural elements. Meningocele is a herniation of a cerebrospinal-fluid-filled sac without neural elements. Failure of foramen Magendie development; enlarged cerebellar vermis; agenesis of the cor- pus callosum b.

What Probability Distributions for Discrete Bayes’ rule allows us to do is to estimate the pos- Random Variables itive predictive value of a positive test T+ for a diagnosis D+ by using the sensitivity and under- For a discrete random variable like the Gleason lying probabilities of T+ and D+ as follows: score purchase cyklokapron from india 7 medications that can cause incontinence, the probability that the Gleason score takes a particular numerical value is called its probabil- P(T+| D+?) P(D+) P(D+| T+=) cheap cyklokapron 500 mg fast delivery medicine 75 yellow. P(T+) In other words buy cyklokapron uk treatment as prevention, the probability that x takes the Here, P(D+) is the a priori probability of the value of a is written as: disease without consideration of the test T. In 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 practice, the binomial and Poisson probability dis- Gleason score tribution functions agree closely with one another, Fig. An example comes from primary For a population of 891 tissue samples of cutaneous melanoma for which the mitotic count is prostate with cancer (data collected by the expressed as number per square millimeter. All one author), the probability distribution for the needs to do is to substitute area for n in the above Gleason score f(Gleason score) took the follow equation. Notice that the values of Probability Distributions for Continuous f(Gleason score) sum to approximately 1. This Random Variables distribution function is illustrated in the histo- gram in Fig. If the random variable x is continuous, then it can take an infnite number of values, and its proba- bility distribution must rely on calculus. Instead the Binomial and Poisson Probability of writing the probability that x takes a certain Distributions for Counted Random value a as P(x= a), we are restricted to consider, Variables for example, the probability that x?a which we write as an integral as follows: Two mathematical forms appropriate for discrete random variables that are counted phenomena are P(x ??) = f(x) dx. These are of special interest to pathol- Here, the limits of the integration are from –? ogists, because both can deal with counts of cells. Distribution functions commonly used for that x number of these cells stain positive for an continuous random variables include the normal, immunohistochemical marker, then the fraction the log-normal, the chi-square, and the exponen- of cells with staining would be estimated as x/n. The log-normal and exponential distribution If the underlying probability of observing a cell functions are particularly suitable for continuous with staining is symbolized as q, then the bino- random variables used in pathology because they mial distribution for the probability of observing deal with random variables that always take posi- x cells with staining is given as: tive values, and this is the case for many continu- ous variables in clinical medicine. For example, (x) (n?x) f(x;n,?) =c(n,x) ?? ?(1??) , the following bar graph shows the observed 4 Biostatistics 101 45 1600 a random sample, the joint probability distribution 1400 of observing x1, x2, x3, …, xn should be given as: 1200 f (x ,x ,x ,…xn)= ?fi(xi). In short, 0 the patients and their random variables should be 0 10 15 statistically independent from one another. The statistics include the mean, median, variance, smooth line is a superimposed ft obtained by standard deviation, the t statistic, the F statistic, using the exponential distribution function and the chi-square statistic. Statistical Hypothesis Testing Statistical testing most commonly involves making Distribution Functions of Two Random what is called the null hypothesis. For example, if Variables and Statistical we have observed two random variables, x and y, Independence and if we suspect that these two are related to one another, then we begin the process with the null If there are two random variables, x and y, then hypothesis that there is no such relationship. Having the distribution function for observing both is made the null hypothesis, we then apply a statisti- symbolized as f(x,y). Following the same logic cal test or model to the data and calculate a statistic, used for independent events, two random vari- s. Under conditions of the test or model, we obtain ables, x and y, are statistically independent of one the probability of observing s if the null hypothesis another if and only if: is true. In other words, we accept the alternative where f1(x) is the distribution function for x and hypothesis, which in the above example is that x f2(y) is for y. If there are multi- ple random variables involved in the study, then a multivariable model and analysis may yield multi- Independent Samples ple statistics and multiple p values. The p value is also known as the probability If we observe a random variable, x, on each patient of making a Type I error, which is defned as in a study of n patients, we can symbolize the entire the error of rejecting a null hypothesis that is in sample as x , x , x , … x. Naturally, researchers desire to make esis depends upon the nature of the random vari- b small. If there are two random variables, x patients that they are studying, because the larger and y, and if y is a dependent continuous variable the sample size, the smaller will be the b. If y were not normal, then nonparametric tests like the Wilcoxon or Kruskal–Wallis tests could be Table 4.